Embedded Files
Using the Style Guide
Using the Style Guide
Welcome to ACLED's Style Guide!
This guide can help you understand and verify ACLED style as you write or edit ACLED analysis. Keep in mind:
ACLED uses American English.
ACLED style is based on the Associated Press Stylebook. The terms in this style guide either deviate from AP style, are not included in AP style, or are elements of AP style that the Publications team wants to highlight due to their relevance to our work.
To most easily find an entry, use Control+F. For any questions, or to suggest or contest an entry, contact the Publications team on Slack.
What's New
What's New
Terms to search for new entries added in March 2026: Accents, citing non-ACLED data, front line, theater, arena, nuclear power plant, Democratic Republic of Congo.
Writing & Formatting
Writing & Formatting
Terms & concepts A-Z
Terms & concepts A-Z
This section includes a list of all terms and concepts for ACLED writing across regions.
Country & regional glossaries
Country & regional glossaries
Citations & Footnotes
Citations & Footnotes
Writing & formatting
Writing & formatting
Punctuation
Punctuation
Commas
Commas
Use the Oxford comma — the comma that comes before the last item in a list — before the conjunction (and, or).
E.g., His grandchildren are Vera, Chuck, and Dave.
Not: His grandchildren are Vera, Chuck and Dave.
If two items in the list are a subgroup (e.g., they are both modified by the same adjective), make sure not to break them up with a comma by mistake.
E.g., She worked at Peruvian consulates and embassies, an airline, and a factory.
Not: She worked at Peruvian consulates, embassies, an airline, and a factory.
Quotation marks
Quotation marks
For more on when to use direct quotations and how to cite them, please refer to the Citations section.
Direct quotations
Use double quotation marks around direct quotations. Use single quotation marks for quotes within quotes.
E.g., The representative said he was “outraged that we’ve been called a ‘banana republic’ in this forum.”
Use indent quotations when exceeding 45 words (but use these very sparingly). Do not use quotation marks for indented quotations.
Regardless of whether they are part of the direct quotation, place periods and commas inside quotation marks. Unless they are part of the direct quotation, place colons, semicolons, and question marks outside quotation marks.
E.g., The CEO said she would address the issue “at the appropriate time.”
E.g., Did the CEO really say she would address the issue “at the appropriate time”?
E.g., She asked, “Did the CEO really say she would address the issue ‘at the appropriate time’?” before leaving the meeting in a huff.
Other uses of quotation marks
On the first reference, use double quotation marks to indicate you are referring to a term of art or an unfamiliar non-English word. Always define or explain the term immediately after using it for the first time if there is any chance the reader may not understand it.
E.g., The most prevalent among these is “love jihad,” an accusation based on a conspiracy theory.
E.g., The expression “ad astra per aspera" is a Latin phrase meaning “to the stars through difficulty.”
On the first reference, use double quotation marks around nicknames and place them either in the middle of the name, just before the surname, or in a phrase (“known as,” “referred to as,” “known locally as,” etc.) right after the legal name. On subsequent references, the nickname alone is permissible, unless a regional specialist offers other guidance. Do not refer to a nickname as an “alias” as it is law enforcement terminology.
E.g., Jimmy “Barbecue” Chérizier is a former police officer.
E.g., Jimmy Chérizier, known as “Barbecue,” is a former police officer.
Not: “Barbecue” is a former police officer.
Colons
Colons
If the words following a colon form a complete sentence, capitalize the first word. If they don’t, don’t.
E.g., I was sure of it: One day, Kevin would learn how to spell.
E.g., He knew just three things: his name, his address, and the king’s phone number.
Semicolons
Semicolons
Divide a list with semicolons when any item in the list requires a comma.
E.g., I scheduled one meeting with Tim and Su Mon; another with Pearl, Valentin, and Nichita; and a third with Jalale and Ameneh.
Use semicolons to separate parts of a sentence only when both clauses are each a complete sentence on their own. Use them very sparingly as they add formality.
E.g., The BJP has strong ties with the RSS; Modi himself began his political career as a religious volunteer with the group.
Not: In addition to the BJP’s strong ties with the RSS; Modi himself began his political career as a religious volunteer with the group.
Apostrophes
Apostrophes
Single proper names ending in S take only an apostrophe in possessive form.
E.g., Hamas’ leadership
Not: Hamas’s leadership
Ex: Belarus’ elite
Not: Belarus’s elite
Single common nouns ending in S take an apostrophe and an S in possessive form.
E.g., The hostess’s invitation
E.g., The witness’s answer
Dashes
Dashes
ACLED uses the em dash (—) and not the shorter en dash (–) to break up a sentence. Use one space around each em dash.
E.g., The government — which has responded to vigilantism with silence or even condonation — has done little to curb the violence.
To insert an em dash on a PC with a numeric keypad, hold down Alt and type 0151.
To insert an em dash on a Mac, hold down Option, Shift, and -.
Hyphens
Hyphens
Do not hyphenate compound modifiers that include -ly.
E.g., The perfectly round dog sunned herself in the grass.
Not: The perfectly-round dog sunned herself in the grass.
When two hyphenated words have the same second half, put the hyphen on both first halves.
E.g., The product is eco- and child-friendly.
Use hyphens to describe the order of superlatives.
E.g., The second-largest province
E.g., The second-most-used resource
Bullet points
Bullet points
Bullet points can make text, especially when viewed online, more readable. Always end each item with a period — never a semicolon — and capitalize the first letter. If a bullet point item is more than one sentence, style it normally as sentences.
E.g., Some popular fresh cheeses are:
● Cottage cheese. (This one is less popular.)
● Queso fresco.
● Cream cheese.
Italics
Italics
Do not italicize anything except parentheticals pointing to a visual. (Do not italicize non-English words, ships, military operations, or anything else.)
E.g., The Russian invasion led to a surge in the levels of violence directed at local government officials in Ukraine (see graph below).
Abbreviations and acronyms
Abbreviations and acronyms
In general, minimize the use of abbreviations and acronyms to the extent possible as they hinder readability. Ask: Is there another way to refer to an actor besides an acronym? E.g., could “The Rwanda Defence Force” be referred to after first mention as “Rwandan forces” instead of “the RDC”?
Write out a name and place the abbreviation or acronym in parentheses immediately afterward on first mention, unless there are no subsequent mentions, in which case you can omit the parenthetical.
E.g., The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) met Thursday.
For abbreviations that are much more common than the full name spelled out (e.g., NATO), you can use the abbreviation on first mention without spelling it out first.
For the US, UN, EU, AU, UK, UAE, DRC, and CAR, spell out on first reference and omit the parenthetical.
E.g., The United States threatened to withdraw funding. The president will fly to the US to address the matter.
Lowercase abbreviated names that are regularly pronounced as a word rather than as a series of letters as it aids readability, except when the capitalized version is used almost exclusively, e.g., NATO, UNICEF, or ACLED.
E.g., The Morena party candidate won the election.
Not: The MORENA party candidate won the election.
Names
Names
Accents and non-Latin characters
Accents and non-Latin characters
In general, use accents in proper names in Latin-alphabet languages, including French, Spanish, and Portuguese.
E.g., President Álvaro Uribe
Not: President Alvaro Uribe
One exception is in writing about the Sahel, where ACLED does not use accents.
Names of people
Names of people
Non-English names of prominent political or cultural figures or groups follow accepted English spellings, unless otherwise indicated by a specialist. If a name as written in Latin script has an accent, use it.
Give the surname first for Japanese names, even if most news outlets do not: e.g., Abe Shinzo, not Shinzo Abe.
Hyphenate Korean names, with the second part of the given name in lowercase (Kim Jong-il: Family name = Kim, given name = Jong-il.)
Use the Pinyin system for transliterating Chinese words, except for people and places outside mainland China: e.g., Chiang Kai-shek not Jiang Jieshi.
Taiwanese names are usually hyphenated.
For Arabic names, see the transliteration guidelines.
Location names
Location names
Location names Names of countries adhere to the dataset (e.g., Ivory Coast, not Côte d’Ivoire) but other location names in ACLED’s written outputs may diverge from the dataset to ensure consistency and readability. In general, use accepted English spellings for well-known locations, e.g., Baalbek, Damascus, Kyiv, Moscow, Mumbai, Riyadh, Warsaw, unless otherwise indicated by country-specific entries in this style guide, or by regional specialists.
Formal titles
Formal titles
Always introduce a public figure’s title on the first mention. Just the surname (or, in some contexts, a nickname or first name) is permissible on subsequent mentions. If the report is long and the public figure is less well-known, you can reuse the title at some point to jog the reader’s memory.
Capitalize the title when it immediately precedes the name and is not immediately followed by a comma.
E.g., He was accompanied by President of Spain Pedro Sánchez.
E.g., He was accompanied by Pedro Sánchez, the president of Spain.
E.g., He was accompanied by the president of Spain, Pedro Sánchez.
Exception to the rule: ACLED titles are always capitalized in job advertisements and bios, even when not preceding the name.
E.g., Sandra Pellegrini is ACLED’s Senior Analyst, Latin America & the Caribbean, and Daniel Herrera Kelly is ACLED’s Associate Analysis Manager.
Do not capitalize informal titles (e.g., community leader, regional expert, or engineer).
Military titles should be spelled out (not abbreviated) on first reference and used only on first reference.
E.g., Major General Odowaa Yusuf Rageh replaced the former head of Somalia’s armed forces. Rageh was army chief from 2020 to 2023.
To introduce the administration or government of a well-known political figure, it is acceptable to refer to their administration with a single name (i.e., their surname or a common nickname) before you mention the figure’s name.
E.g., The Ruto government has apparently acquiesced to the protesters’ demands … President William Ruto spoke to journalists on Friday.
Numbers
Numbers
Numerals or letters?
Numerals or letters?
Write the numbers one to nine in words, and numbers including and above 10 in numerals. Ordinals (fifth, 11th) follow the same rule. An exception is when a number begins a sentence, in which case it must always be spelled out in words (which looks a bit odd, so try to avoid it). An exception to the exception is years, which may start a sentence without being spelled out.
E.g., Forty-five battles were recorded in 10 countries across the region last week, with five in Yemen alone. 2022 could see further escalation.
Another exception: Hyphenate and spell out fractions less than one (e.g., two-thirds, seven-sixteenths). However, for mixed numbers larger than one, use numerals (e.g., 1 1/2, 3 5/8). Numbers between one and two are expressed in the plural (e.g., one and a half salaries, 1.3 times). Less-formal expressions like “roughly a third” are acceptable and not hyphenated.
Thousands, millions, billions, and trillions
Thousands, millions, billions, and trillions
Use commas for numbers of more than four digits.
E.g., 1,001 events
Not: 1001 events
Not: 1.001 events
Use numerals to indicate how many millions, billions, or trillions, but always spell out million, billion, or trillion. Use decimals but don’t go beyond two decimal places. When expressing a range, include the word million, billion, or trillion in both numbers.
E.g., Between 11 million and 11.4 million people have been internally displaced.
Not: Between 11 and 11.4 million people have been internally displaced.
Ages
Ages
Always use numerals for ages. Use hyphens when ages are acting as an adjective before the noun or as a substitute for the noun, and after “mid.”
E.g., Dad is 86 years old, but even in his mid-80s he still has the energy to take care of my 6-year-old son, who is actually more exhausting than my 3-year-old.
Dates and times
Dates and times
Use day-month-year format, and write them out in full. Do not use commas.
E.g., 21 October 2018
Not: October 21 2018
Not: October 21, 2018,
Use a.m. and p.m. for times of day.
E.g., 7 a.m.
E.g.,12:32 p.m.
Not: 7 AM
Not: 13h
When referring to decades, use the full year, expressed in numerals and without apostrophes.
E.g., The 1990s
Not: The 1990’s
Not: The 90s
Not: The nineties
Use numerals for centuries.
E.g., The 19th century
E.g., The mid-20th century
Hyphenate time periods. Do not use an en dash. It is acceptable to use only the second half of the year when the century is the same.
E.g., The groups were active from 1980-82, 1989-92, and 1999-2006.
Measurements
Measurements
Use the metric system — meters, kilometers, grams, kilograms, tonnes — not the imperial system — inches, miles, ounces, pounds, tons. Check the use of tons/tonnes and convert figures to metric if necessary. Spell out the measure on first reference and use an abbreviation on subsequent references. Include a space between a unit and its value. Use numerals for all numbers.
E.g., He weighed just 40 kilograms, but he was able to lift a 150 kg box.
For area, use the abbreviation and superscript (km2) on the first reference.
Currencies
Currencies
Give the name of a currency in full the first time. Use the shortened version thereafter. When citing currency figures, there is no space between the currency sign and the number. In general, use US dollars unless specifically referring to a local currency. When using a local currency, please also provide a US dollar figure equivalent in brackets. To account for fluctuating conversion rates, add "at the time" when making a historical conversion.
E.g., She was paid 39,000 euros (roughly $45,500 at the time).
On second mention, use the name of the currency unless it is one of the following (with apologies for this Western-centric rule):
US dollars (use $ on second mention)
British pounds (use £ on second mention)
Euros (use € on second mention)
Canadian dollars (use CA$ on second mention)
E.g., The country received 600 million Canadian dollars (417.55 million US dollars) in military support the first year and another CA$800 million (US$556.73) the next.
Perform conversions using XE.com. Find the shortened versions of currency names on XE’s symbols page.
Writing about ACLED and ACLED data
Writing about ACLED and ACLED data
ACLED’s name
ACLED’s name
In general, the organization should be referred to by its acronym, ACLED, which stands for Armed Conflict Location & Event Data. The ampersand should be used when spelling out the full name. ACLED can be described using the following language:
ACLED (Armed Conflict Location & Event Data) is an independent, impartial global monitor that collects, analyzes, and maps data on conflict and protest. ACLED provides detailed information to help identify, understand, and track patterns and trends in conflict and crisis situations around the world.
Referring to our CEO
Referring to our CEO
Use "ACLED CEO Prof. Clionadh Raleigh" to refer to our CEO. Refer to the Formal titles entry to understand when and how to use commas.
Large percentages
Large percentages
Previously banned, "-fold" expressions (e.g., fivefold, sevenfold, ninefold) are acceptable in ACLED publications. These expressions always refer to an increase; there is no such thing as a "fourfold decrease," for instance. Remember that fourfold is a 300% increase, fivefold is a 400% increase, and so on.
Data
Data
Data is plural in ACLED analysis — the data are, not the data is. Our data should be described as ACLED data and not as ACLED’s data. The exception is External Affairs-led publications, in which data is singular.
Dataset is one word, and it is singular — the dataset is, not the dataset are.
ACLED collects real-time data, but ACLED collects data in real time: Both are correct.
In most cases, refer to what’s in ACLED’s dataset using the present tense. As ACLED’s dataset is living, and it’s always possible that we will add, delete, or modify events that occurred during a previous period, when we write about that period we describe what’s in our data as it is now.
E.g., ACLED records more than 600 events of violence against civilians in May 2024.
Not: ACLED recorded more than 600 events of violence against civilians in May 2024.
This principle translates to actor responsibility:
E.g., Boko Haram is responsible for over 60 reported fatalities from violence targeting civilians in June.
Not: Boko Haram was responsible for over 60 reported fatalities from violence targeting civilians in June.
On the other hand, to describe the activity of producing the dataset, you can use the past tense.
E.g., In 2024, ACLED’s data collection teams recorded more than 4 million events.
Event types
Event types
When referring to ACLED event types in the context of ACLED methodology and following them with “event type(s),” capitalize the first word and put the term in quotation marks. When referring to event types otherwise, lowercase and put in quotation marks. For terms used within the text that happen to also be event types (e.g., airstrikes), do not capitalize or use quotation marks.
E.g., This figure includes the “Explosions/remote violence” event type.
E.g., ACLED counts the number of “airstrike events,” rather than individual airstrikes.
E.g., ACLED records five incidents of violence targeting civilians in the province in May.
Fatalities and casualties
Fatalities and casualties
ACLED’s conservative methodology for tallying fatalities guides our style for describing them. Some users, and particularly journalists, may focus on fatality counts in our analysis without fully understanding our methodology, so it is important to be cautious and consider that our numbers are often estimates, not absolute totals and, in many cases, represent a likely undercount.
Always include the word “reported” before fatalities, including when using synonyms and other constructions: reported deaths, reportedly killed, etc.; an exception is in timelines. When fatality numbers are high and/or contested, round to approximate numbers. In many cases you may wish to use “at least” before the number of fatalities.
Note that the term fatalities differs from casualties, which includes both deaths and injuries. For more, see the FAQs: ACLED Fatality Methodology. To avoid confusion when discussing both deaths and injuries, where possible, use layman's terms instead.
E.g., Eight people were reportedly killed in the attack, and 16 were injured.
Not: The attack led to eight fatalities and 16 other casualties.
Locations
Locations
Be sure to reference locations featured in supporting visuals within the body text.
See region-specific sections for entries on local administrative divisions.
For disputed land or bodies of water, etc., include both names divided by a forward slash (e.g., Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands).
Include the article when referring to a region.
E.g., Activity was concentrated in the Amhara region.
Not: Activity was concentrated in Amhara region.
There is no hard-and-fast rule for how many administrative levels to include for a location within the body text of a report. Include as much information about a location as the average reader needs to situate it geographically and understand any relevant context. That information may not be additional administrative levels. Instead, it may be, for example, “a small village in the north of the country situated along important gold smuggling routes.”
Methodological footnotes
Here, for easier reference, are some of our regularly used methodological footnotes.
Airstrike events: ACLED counts the number of "Airstrike events," rather than individual airstrikes. Per ACLED methodology, when several strikes hit the same location on the same day, they are coded as one event in the dataset. Visit the Codebook to learn more.
Extremist groups: ACLED uses this term to refer to a variety of actors, from “traditional” militias to militant street movements. Though they are also analyzed separately, this figure also accounts for white nationalist and neo-Nazi groups.
White nationalists: ACLED uses this term to refer to groups that openly describe themselves as white nationalist, white supremacist, or neo-Nazi.
This regional update covers ACLED data through 27 June. Data for 28-30 June will be available 9 July.
Photo captions
See the guidance on the Photo / Video sourcing & caption writing guide.
Titles and subtitles
Titles and subtitles
Titles and section headings should:
Be written in sentence case.
Be short: Aim for 60 characters but don’t exceed 100.
Include an active verb and aim for a full sentence in most cases.
Focus on what’s different, new, or trending — the title does not have to cover all the contents of the piece.
Generally avoid the words continue, remain, and others that communicate stasis or a lack of change or development. A situation always develops and changes, however subtly — and if it hasn’t, we shouldn’t be writing about it — so try taking a more granular approach.
Ideally, do not include any of the words in the first sentence immediately following it.
E.g., The RSF sets its eyes on North Darfur in Sudan
Recurring outputs (like the regional updates or monthly special projects updates) should have a unique title related to the content, followed by the relevant time information. For example, the regional update covering 1-31 December 2025 is titled “Regional update: January 2026.”
The title of the report should not include a date in the past. However, a subtitle can provide information on the time period covered by the data in the report. The weekly Ukraine Conflict Monitor update on the home page will feature the “Last updated” date, but the title in the archive will reflect the coverage period.
Dates in titles: All monthly recurring publications are referred to in the title with the month of publication. The same principle applies to fortnightly and weekly recurring publications.
Quotes in titles: Use double quotes, with single quotes for extremely rare cases of quotes inside quotations.
Time periods
Time periods
When comparing a time period to a previous one, avoid constructions that require the reader to calculate a number of days or months in their head in order to understand the sentence — or that could lead the reader to think you're comparing the same dates in the previous year. Unfortunately, these constructions almost always sound a bit awkward when we're not using whole months or years, but some phrasing is a bit easier to process (though usually inevitably wordier).
E.g., The nearly five-month period between 17 January and May 27 saw 52 such events, a 40% increase over the preceding period of equal length.
E.g., In the nearly five months between 1 January and 27 May 2025, ACLED records 52 such events, a 40% increase over the equal, immediately preceding timespan.
Not: January 1 through May 23 saw 52 such events, representing a 40% increase from the same period prior.
Timelines
Timelines
Formatting timeline items
Timelines should follow the same format across all analysis outputs. Timeline items should be:
At most 15 words, but aim for 10.
Written in present tense.
Written in active voice (subject-verb-object).
Written as complete sentences — do not omit articles like “the” or other small words.
Presented in the document as:
[Date (Day + [month abbreviated to the first three letters].] | [Country] [Sentence]
E.g., 2 Nov. | Afghanistan The National Resistance Front shells a Taliban intelligence center in Baghlan province
If an event occurs over multiple days, use just the first day for the date and, within the item, make it clear that the event continued beyond the listed date.
E.g., 27 Nov. | Syria HTS-led rebels launch a major offensive and gain control of large parts of the north
E.g., 22 Dec. | Myanmar The military and Brotherhood Alliance begin a three-day round of peace talks
Writing timeline items
Timelines are the exception to a few ACLED style rules:
You can refer to fatalities without using “reportedly,” for brevity.
You can use the abbreviation for an actor, as long as it is well-known to the readership and the full name appears elsewhere.
Tips for keeping timeline items short:
Be sure you’re talking about just one isolated event.
Instead of including an actor, figure, or agency’s full name, consider a descriptive phrase, e.g., “the ruling party” instead of the party name, “a lawmaker” instead of the full formal title, or “separatists” instead of the actor name.
Include just one administrative level and don’t repeat the country name.
Instead of omitting important information for space, try being less specific. For example, “I picked up bananas, pears, flour, lentils, and eggs” could be shortened to “I bought groceries.”
To determine which details are most important to include, consider that fatalities should always be mentioned. When in doubt, focus in on any fatalities or casualties from an event and work backward.
Cut words describing the administrative level (e.g., municipality, state, region) unless it makes the item less clear.
For more on timelines in Regional Overviews specifically, refer to the Regional Overview guide.
Regional updates (Regional Overviews)
Regional updates (Regional Overviews)
Regional Overviews are called regional updates (lower case) in our external publications.
E.g., (For more, see the January 2026 Middle East regional update.)
Terms and concepts A-Z
Terms and concepts A-Z
Airbase, not air base.
Airstrike, not air strike.
Air- and drone strikes for the event type.
Alleged Do not use this term alone to convey uncertainty. Use it to convey that someone (usually an authority) has made a specific allegation, and always say who made the allegation. Often, a word like claimed or said is better for describing an accusation.
E.g., The clash, which the military claims was instigated by the rebel group, continued for two days.
Not: The clash, allegedly instigated by the rebel group, continued for two days.
Exception: In the case of criminal charges, we can assume a legal authority made the allegation.
E.g., The head of the council was arrested for alleged incitement.
Anti-personnel mines, not antipersonnel mines.
Antisemitic, not anti-semitic. Be mindful of the difference between antisemitism and anti-Israel sentiment, though they may overlap.
Amid, not amidst.
Among, not amongst.
Arena should be avoided when describing a conflict zone.
Backward, not backwards.
Bipartisan, not bi-partisan.
Carpet-bomb, not carpet bomb.
Ceasefire, not cease-fire.
Corridor Lower-case in the name of a corridor.
E.g., Zangezur corridor
Counter- Hyphenate the words counter-offensive counter-operation, counter-attack, counter-protesters, counter-demonstrations, counter-terrorism, and counter-insurgency. Defer to Merriam Webster for other words.
Cross-border, not crossborder.
Day(s) of action for the US anti-Trump demonstration strategy. No need for quotation marks around the names of specific days of action.
E.g., The first No Kings day of action mobilized the most demonstrations in any single day in our US dataset.
De-escalation, not deescalation.
Democratic Republic of Congo, not Democratic Republic of the Congo.
De-occupy, de-occupation, not deoccupy, deoccupation.
Directions Use lowercase for directions (e.g., north, south, southwest, northeast) unless part of a proper name (e.g., North Korea). Use one word with no hyphen for intercardinal directions: northeast, not north-east or north east.
Durand Line
Eliminated Except in quotes, do not use this dehumanizing and imprecise term when explaining the death of a military figure or anyone else. Opt for "killed" or another term.
Ethnicity and race Capitalize Black, Native American, and Indigenous. Do not capitalize white.
Do not hyphenate racial, national, or ethnic identities unless the person or people being described have stated a preference for a hyphen.
E.g., The campaign met with Black American and Palestinian American voters in the state.
Extrajudicial, not extra-judicial.
Far right (n.), far-right (adj.) ACLED uses this term to refer to a variety of actors, from “traditional” militias to militant street movements. White nationalist and neo-Nazi groups are analyzed separately.
Flyer, not flier, for both people flying aircraft and for handbills.
Forward, not forwards.
Front line (n.), front-line (adj.), not frontline.
Gaza war is preferred over Israel-Hamas war.
Gender-affirming care, gender-affirming surgery
Gen Z, not Generation Z.
Health care, not healthcare.
IED Improvised explosive device. The abbreviation is acceptable on first reference.
Internally displaced people, not internally displaced persons, to describe people displaced within their country. The term “internally displaced persons” and its shortened version (IDP) are acceptable for describing a camp or program, but they are best avoided when describing people as they are jargon and have the potential to dehumanize.
Irregular immigration, not illegal immigration, to describe entering or living in a country without authorization.
Landmine, not land mine.
Legislature, parliament Capitalize legislature, parliament, congress, and similar terms when they form part of the formal name of a government institution, including in translation.
Lowercase in other instances. Do not capitalize the adjective forms legislative, parliamentary, or congressional.
E.g., The bill now heads to Portugal's Assembly of the Republic. The Portuguese parliament will consider the measure during next month's legislative session.
LGBTQ+, not LGBT. Use LGBTQ+ as an umbrella term to refer to lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer people. Do not spell out; use the abbreviation on first mention.
Line of Control
Lone wolf attacks, not lone-wolf attacks.
Migrant Use this term in the plural to describe mixed migration flows, but if possible be more specific.
Further guidance from the Associated Press: “The term generally refers to people who are on the move, sometimes for economic reasons, either within one country or across borders. The term is generally preferred over immigrant in Europe, Africa, the Mideast, and Asia, where a person’s destination country may be undecided or in flux.
The term migrant also may be used for those whose reason for leaving their home country is not clear, or to cover people who may also be refugees or asylum-seekers.
But be specific whenever possible, or use other phrasing such as people struggling to enter Europe, Cubans seeking new lives in the United States, families seeking to join relatives in the US. If a given group of people is known to include both migrants and refugees, say so.”
Militia, militias The plural of militia is militias, not militia.
Nuclear power plant is lower cased in a name.
E.g., Zaporizhia nuclear power plant
Not: Zaporizhia Nuclear Power Plant
Offensive, operation Operation (plural) refers to activity or presence and can be used in the plural when describing general activities. Operation (singular) is always used with an adjective in reference to a specific offensive, e.g., a counter-insurgency operation or military operation.
Offensive, meanwhile, should be used in the singular to describe one initiative. It does not need an adjective.
Translate names of operations to English, unless the name is very well-known in the original language. Use the word “operation” in English. If using the original language, place the English translation in parentheses, or between commas, on first or second reference. If a common, but not literal, translation is widely in use in English, use the common translation.
E.g., Operation Lava Jato (or “Car Wash” in English)
E.g., Operation Lava Jato, referred to as “Car Wash” in English,
One and a half decades, not one-and-a-half decades.
Passers-by, not passersby.
People, not persons.
Police Generally, use police without the article. Use the article when referring to an organization (e.g., “youth joined the police”) and in some rare cases as a collective noun (e.g., “rioters threw stones at the police").
Re-election (n.), re-elected (adj.), not reelection, reelected.
Re-engage (v.), re-engaged (adj.), not reengage, reengaged.
Re-establish (n.), re-established (adj.), not reestablish, reestablished.
Re-take (v.), re-taken (adj.), not retake, retaken.
Real time (n.), real-time (adj.)
Refugee A specific term for a person displaced across international borders. In some cases, the United Nations may refer to people as refugees under other circumstances. Check ReliefWeb for situation reports on a specific context to better understand how the term is being used.
Refugee camps Capitalize only the proper name and not the words “refugee camp” in the name of a refugee camp.
E.g., Jabaliya refugee camp
Not: Jabaliya Refugee Camp
Relaunch, not re-launch.
Ship ownership and registration To describe who owns a ship, use [the demonym of the country]-owned, except in the rare case the ship is owned by the state itself, in which case use [country]-owned. To describe where a ship is registered, avoid using -flagged. When short on space, [country]-registered can be substituted for [country]-flagged, but it is preferable to describe the ship as “registered in [country].”
E.g., The Greek-owned Star Nasia bulk carrier, registered in the Marshall Islands, left the area.
E.g., The Greek-owned, Marshall Islands-registered Star Nasia bulk carrier left the area.
Not: The Greece-owned, Marshallese-flagged Star Nasia bulk carrier left the area.
Supersedes, not supercedes.
SVBIED, VBIED Spell out on first reference as (suicide) vehicle-borne IED. (Do not spell out IED.) Use only as necessary, such as in a quote, and favor simpler terms like car bomb or truck bomb, or a description like “a car rigged with an IED” instead.
Takeover (n.), take over (v.)
Tear gas, not teargas.
Terrorism, terrorist Don’t use the word terrorist to designate actors or groups, unless you are quoting others who use the word, for example if government entities designate certain actors as terrorists or terrorist groups or an operation as counter-terrorism. ACLED does not describe groups or individuals as terrorists because terrorism is a tactic, not an organizational principle, and the term is highly politicized.
Theater should be avoided when describing a conflict zone.
Toward, not towards.
Town hall, not townhall.
Troops A collective noun used to describe groups of soldiers or fighters — not individuals.
E.g., Three soldiers were injured in the battle.
Not: Three troops were injured in the battle.
Unauthorized miner, not illegal miner.
US army, not US Army. Lower case generic names of military branches for all countries.
Violence against civilians Avoid this term in Analysis writing unless referring to the specific ACLED event type. When referring to the event type, be sure to explain what it includes as the meaning may not be obvious to readers not regularly interacting with our dataset.
White nationalists ACLED uses this term to refer to groups that openly describe themselves as white nationalist, white supremacist, or neo-Nazi.
Worshippers, not worshipers.
Yellow Line, with no quotation marks, for the line in Gaza.
Terms & concepts by region
Terms & concepts by region
Citations & Footnotes
Citations & Footnotes
Using non-citation footnotes
Using non-citation footnotes
What should not be included in footnotes:
What should not be included in footnotes:
Do not use footnotes to explain a term used in your text. Readers should not need to consult footnotes to understand the body of the text. Rather, footnotes should provide additional information if readers are interested.
Clarification on methodology and/or data
Clarification on methodology and/or data
Certain clarifications related to ACLED’s methodology are needed for readers to fully understand a data point’s meaning (and often its constraints). In such occasions, you can include clarifying information both in-line and as a footnote, depending on what needs to be clarified.
E.g., instead of “ACLED records 3,323 fatalities since the start of the war,” use approximate language with the number and, if it is the case that other sources report a much higher number, it may be relevant to add the following note: “ACLED’s fatality number is a conservative estimate due to methodological limitations of real-time reporting in a conflict of this nature. For more, see the Fatalities FAQ in ACLED’s Knowledge Base.”
Similarly, for airstrikes vs. airstrike events, instead of “ACLED records over 300 Israeli airstrikes in Syria in 2024” make sure to include that they are airstrike events and possibly add the following note: “ACLED counts the number of ‘airstrike events,’ rather than individual airstrikes. Per ACLED methodology, when several strikes hit the same location on the same day, they are coded as one event in the dataset. See the ACLED Codebook for more details.”
Preliminary data: The decision to include a disclaimer for stats or visuals with preliminary data will be assessed on a case-by-case basis after consulting with the Analysis department leadership.
What should be included in footnotes vs. visuals
What should be included in footnotes vs. visuals
The kind of information included in footnotes rather than visuals includes:
An explanation of the time period the data covers if it’s important and likely to raise questions (see note below on including notes about the time period on the visual).
Methodology explanations.
Links to the Knowledge Base.
Visuals should be able to stand alone as they may be used in social media posts or by external parties. Information that will appear directly on a visual instead of a footnote includes:
The source of the data if using external data.
Notes on the time period, etc., that are specifically relevant to the visual.
Methodology notes on how external data are used and how it should be interpreted.
Using footnotes to cite non-ACLED sources
Using footnotes to cite non-ACLED sources
Include citations using a footnote when referencing non-ACLED material.
The argument of a piece should be supported by a broad range of primary and secondary sources. Use information from official government websites or other government reports and cite an official white paper rather than another analyst’s interpretation of that paper, unless you are transmitting their opinion explicitly for the purpose of your argument.
Plagiarism is a serious breach of an organization’s integrity, which can undermine the reputation of you as a researcher and of the institution as a whole. As such, paraphrased or synthesized information from other sources should always be accompanied by a citation to avoid plagiarism. This means a report should never include copied sentences, phrases, or expressions from a source or paraphrasing without adequately acknowledging the source.
Include citations for (but not limited to) the following information:
All factual statements
Direct quotations from primary sources
Non-ACLED data (e.g., refugee/displacement data)
Controversial points
Statistics related to economic development
Election results
Refugee flows
Analysis derived from other sources
Official documents such as legislation and security reports
When making a connection between disparate points or concepts
Guidelines for footnote citations
Guidelines for footnote citations
Add footnotes after punctuation. E.g., The government denied any involvement in the violence.1 instead of The government denied any involvement in the violence1.
When possible, footnotes should be at the end of a sentence for reading flow.
When two sentences use the same source, include the footnote at the end of the second sentence to ensure a footnote follows all the preceding information.
When citing non-ACLED material text within footnotes, please include the footnoted text followed by the source.
1 According to some analysts, the humanitarian situation in Yemen will likely deteriorate further due to the war in Ukraine. See Omer Karasapan, “Yemen in the shadow of Russia’s war on Ukraine,” The Brookings Institution, 18 April 2022
Do not use “Ibid” for sequential footnotes with the same citation, as citations do not appear in a list on the website; they are hidden until expanded by the user.
How to write footnote citations
How to write footnote citations
Citations should include the following:
Full name of the author or organization.
“Title.”
Publication.
Date (DD Month YEAR) (Use the full date for all sources when available).
Changed for 2025 Add double quotation marks around the title after the comma.
Use a 10pt font size.
Hyperlink the entire citation unless a link is unavailable (e.g., for rarely used sources like a print article or radio interview).
Titles should retain the capitalization style of the source.
When a publication title ends in a question mark/exclamation point, drop the comma after the question mark/exclamation point.
When a publication’s title contains quotation marks, replace them with single quotation marks.
When a publication’s title ends with quotation marks, the final comma should be placed inside the single quotation mark.
For sources with more than one author, use “and” instead of “&” to separate authors and include an Oxford comma before the “and.”
If there are more than three authors, list the lead author’s name and “et al.” followed by a comma.
If an author’s name includes initials, leave spaces following the full stops.
For sources that do not have an author listed, this part of the reference can be omitted, and the publication name should be moved to the front of the citation.
If you have more than one citation at the same point in the text, they should be separated by a semicolon in the footnote. Do not use footnotes that follow one another.
E.g., The attack killed at least 32 people.1 (with all the sources listed in footnote 1 and separated by a semi-colon) NOT The attack killed at least 32 people. 1;2;3
Natasja Rupesinghe, Mikael Hiberg Naghizadeh, and Corentin Cohen, “Reviewing Jihadist Governance in the Sahel,” Norwegian Institute of International Affairs, 12 May 2021; Signe Marie Cold-Ravnkilde and Boubacar Ba, “Jihadist Ideological Conflict and Local Governance in Mali,” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 21 April 2022
Using non-ACLED data in the text
Using non-ACLED data in the text
Do not use a footnote alone to cite data from a source other than ACLED, even if it is a type of data we do not record — readers may assume the numbers come from our dataset. Instead, attribute the number to the source of the data within the text and add a footnote.
E.g., Since the conflict began, at least 103 people have died due to starvation, according to the Ministry of Health.1
Using quotes in the text
Using quotes in the text
Do not use a footnote when citing a direct quote. The quote needs to be written out in the text, and the source must be provided in a footnote following the quote. NOTE: All direct quotes require a citation.
Use quotes to convey information obtained from an expert source. E.g., Another explanation for the reduction, according to some experts, lies in the reluctance in certain sectors of the army to take on the Gulf Clan. According to one expert, “the army is happy that another actor is fighting rebel groups and does not attack them.”1
Quotes should not be used to cite information from an article that should rather be paraphrased. E.g., Violence has been “endemic to the region since the regime took power in 2003.” This should be paraphrased, and the article must be linked as a footnote following the sentence. E.g., Since [actor] took control of [name of the region] in 2003, violence has been prevalent/commonplace/rife in the region.1
Avoid quoting from the same source repetitively within the same paragraph.
Avoid long quotations (more than three or four lines).
When quoting a full paragraph (e.g., from a white paper), you can use a separate block of quotation text. However, this is not recommended.
Translations
Translations
If the title is in a language other than English, translate it into English and add the original language in brackets at the end of the citation. This applies to titles in languages that use Latin script that previously were not translated into English, such as French and Italian. The onus is on the author to provide the translation, and each regional desk may decide how to approach this if the authors aren’t native speakers.
Include the original language in brackets for social media citations in other languages, even if they do not have a title to translate.
When translating, use standard punctuation practices as per the English language.
Replace « » with “ ”.
Do not leave spaces before punctuation marks like colons and exclamation marks.
Do not include multiple question marks around words.
Citing various sources
Citing various sources
Books
Books
Always include as much information as possible about the date. If the publication date is not exact, use “Month YEAR” or just “YEAR.”
When available, always include the specific page number(s) you’re referencing. Note: use “pp. 23-27” for a range of pages.
For the hyperlink, include a link to the publisher’s website with information on the book.
For books, refer to the publisher in the publication field:
For chapters in a book, include the chapter name in quotation marks followed by the book details and page numbers for the specific chapter being referenced:
The inclusion of “in” is used to indicate that it’s a chapter referenced within a book.
For books that include an editor or editors, add (ed.) or (eds.), respectively, after their name(s). Where possible, cite the specific chapter in the book.
For books that have been translated, include the name of the translator after the book name.
Journal articles
Journal articles
Always include as much information as possible about the date. If the publication date is not exact, use “Month YEAR” or just “YEAR.”
When available, always include the specific page number(s) you’re referencing. Note: use “pp. 23-27” for a range of pages.
For journal articles, refer to the journal's name rather than the publisher in the publication field. Do not include details of the volume and issue number:
Social media
Social media
When citing reports, posts, or updates from reputable social media accounts, include the name of the social media platform, account handle, title (if one is available), and the date of the post. Previous guidance did not require the name of the social media platform to be included in the citation in all cases. However, this poses a risk for readers in places where certain social media platforms are blocked or monitored. For example, for a period in 2024, it was illegal to use a VPN to access X in Brazil, and someone may already be on their VPN and not realize what they’re clicking. TikTok could have similar ramifications in other places. Therefore, we now require social media citations to always be treated as a social media post and to include the name of the platform and the handle/user.
NOTE: Most platforms don’t have titles for their social media posts. For these posts, use only the social media platform, account handle, and date.For Facebook:
For X:
For YouTube:
NOTE: YouTube is one social media platform for which titles are available. Include this as part of the citation.
For TikTok:
Online content
Online content
When an article has been updated, use the date updated instead of the original publication date.
Use the date accessed for webpages that do not have a publication date.
PhD dissertations can be used as a source, so long as there is good reasoning and a page number is included. Master’s and bachelor’s theses can be considered as well. Indicate the University and the type of dissertation as the publisher.
Note: PhD dissertations are written as “PhD dissertation,” while master’s and bachelor’s are written as thesis. I.e., “master’s thesis” and “bachelor’s thesis.”Cite UN statements by including the statement number:
Government/official publications
Government/official publications
When citing government or official documents, use the name of the country in the author field, the full name of the document in the title field, the name of the website on which you found it in the publication field, and the date you accessed it in the date field.
Print sources
Print sources
Sources that are only available in print should specify this information. For example, for a print-only newspaper article, you need to specify that it’s a print newspaper and include details such as the newspaper name, headline, and publication date.
The National, “Two clans clash in Porgera,” 12 September 2024. Print newspaper
For government publications, include details for the publisher in the publisher field.
Republic of South Africa, “White Paper on Environment,” Government Printers, 1996. Print publication
Radio interviews
Radio interviews
Information cited from radio interviews should be cited in a footnote including the following information:
Radio interview with [insert interviewee’s name], conducted by [insert interviewer’s name], title of radio show, title of radio station, date
Guidance for using “extremist” primary sources
Guidance for using “extremist” primary sources
As far as possible, make it clear that we used a primary source in the footnote and describe it, but do not link to it to minimize the risk of further propagating extremist content/driving traffic to extremist websites, etc. In the past, for example, we've explicitly indicated we monitor “primary sources, such as Telegram channels and platforms used by militia groups or militant social movements” but that we purposefully don't link to them to “avoid the amplification” of extremist accounts. Examples of footnotes:
These statements were made on [x channel] on [y date]. ACLED monitors primary sources of information on armed group activity, including their official channels and accounts, but does not directly link to such sources in order to minimize the risk of amplifying extremist content.
These reports are sourced from a Telegram channel run by Patriot Front and are purposefully not linked here. This source is shared by ACLED’s partner, MilitiaWatch.
AQAP released an audio statement on its official Al Malahem website on 24 March 2023, warning spies inside the group. ACLED monitors primary sources of information on armed group activity, including their official channels and accounts, but it does not directly link to such sources to minimize the risk of amplifying extremist content.
Citing ACLED sources
Citing ACLED sources
Don't use a footnote citation for ACLED material, data, or claims drawn from ACLED data.
When making a claim supported by ACLED data, don't include an external source for the initial claim.
E.g., The Wagner Group became one of the dominant agents of political violence in CAR. Of all political violence that ACLED records between December 2020 and July 2022 in CAR, nearly 40% of events involve the Wagner Group.
When referencing ACLED material, hyperlink directly and reference in the text.
“As demonstrated in ACLED’s recent report on political violence during the Ukrainian elections…”
Or as an italicized parenthetical providing more information. E.g., “The Proud Boys engage in more violent activity than the Oath Keepers (for more on the Oath Keepers, see this Actor Profile).”
When referencing predictions made by the ACLED CAST tool/other ACLED tools:
The ACLED Conflict Alert System (CAST) predicts a 45% increase in political violence events in Palestine in the next month compared to the six months prior.
When referencing methodology documents, use the Knowledge Base links:
(for more, see the Sourcing methodology on ACLED’s Knowledge Base.)
Citing ACLED researcher interviews/primary research
Citing ACLED researcher interviews/primary research
Include the following in a footnote:
Type of communication (interview, participant observation, information received via informants, personal communications).
With (description of the interviewee, including where they’re from. E.g., member of government/ armed forces/ rebel group/ militia group; community member; expert; researcher; representative of partner organization).
Be as specific as possible without compromising the interviewee's safety. If necessary, do not use the interviewee’s name or any other potentially identifying information (such as a title and organization). To make it clear that the interviewee is anonymous, you can include this in the description.
Who the research should be attributed to (e.g., ACLED, project name (e.g., Cabo Ligado), partner organization (e.g., GITOC)).
Date (DD Month YEAR).
Examples:
Interview with an al-Shabaab clan-based elder in Jilib, GITOC, 12 May 2023
Online interview with a member from the Tuareg community, ACLED, February 2023
Telephonic interview with a member from the Tuareg community, ACLED, February 2023
Personal communications with a Malian security expert from Gao, ACLED, Cabo Ligado, February 2023
Interview with a resistance member, ACLED, 2 February 2025
Interview with an anonymous expert, ACLED, 2 May 2025
If you’ve conducted more than one interview on the same day with two people you’re describing in the same way (e.g., “anonymous expert”), make this clear. E.g.:
Interview with anonymous expert 1, ACLED, 2 May 2025
Interview with anonymous expert 2, ACLED, 2 May 2025
Roundtable/focus group discussions
Roundtable/focus group discussions
Include specific details in a footnote:
Who the information should be attributed to (e.g., expert on x, professor of y, etc.).
How this took place (e.g., focus group discussion/roundtable discussion, etc.).
Who hosted/facilitated the event.
Where this took place (physical location/virtually, etc. Be specific about the city and country information).
Date (DD Month YEAR).
Libyan security expert, roundtable discussion facilitated by GITOC and ACLED, London, United Kingdom, 6 November 2023
Expert on gold mining dynamics in Burkina Faso, virtual focus group discussion hosted by ACLED, 12 January 2020
International Security Analyst at the University of Aberdeen, ACLED webinar, 10 September 2024
Source name formatting
Source name formatting
Spell out the organization’s name in full on each mention, as citations do not appear in a list on the website; they are hidden until expanded by the user.
First mention: United Nations Mission in South Sudan, “UNMISS ‘Protection of Civilians’ (PoC) Sites Population Update,” 18 June 2020
Later: United Nations Mission in South Sudan, “UNMISS ‘Protection of Civilians’ (PoC) Sites Population Update,” 18 June 2020, not UNMISS, “UNMISS ‘Protection of Civilians’ (PoC) Sites Population Update,” 18 June 2020
If a source has been referenced in a citation, you should still spell out the name in the text. This is because the citations are hidden on the site until expanded by the user.
Retain the original formatting if a source name begins with a lowercase letter.
Add the country name next to the name of a source that has the same name as another popular publication. E.g., “The Independent (Uganda);” “The Guardian (Nigeria).”
Commonly cited sources and how to format them
Commonly cited sources and how to format them
E.g., “ According to International Crisis Group, ...”
Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty
Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty Belarus
United Nations (in the case of the different organizations that form part of the UN, spell out the full name, with the exception of some of the UN bodies listed below).
UNESCO (use the acronym on the first reference as it is less recognizable by its fully-spelled-out name).
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees.
UNICEF (use the acronym on the first reference as it is less recognizable by its fully-spelled out name).
United Nations OCHA or UNOCHA (use the acronym on first reference as it is less recognizable by its fully-spelled out name).
United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. Warning: Always check UNOHCHR news links, as they are unstable, and replace them with a stable link.
UNRWA (use the acronym on first reference as it is less recognizable by its fully-spelled-out name).
Note: When unsure, refer to the website of a source and cite the name as it is written there.
Notes on specific sources
Notes on specific sources
Philippine Daily Inquirer, INQUIRER.net, Philippine Star, and Philstar.com: For these two Philippine sources, their print and online operations are both organizationally and editorially separate (even if part of the same media group), yet hosted on the same website. Philippine Daily Inquirer is distinct from the online news source, INQUIRER.net, while Philippine Star is distinct from Philstar.com, though for both these sources the URLs are the same as their online counterparts (inquirer.net and philstar.com). The correct source to attribute an article to is in the byline of the author in the article (eg., John Smith, Philippine Daily Inquirer/Philippine Star or John Smith, INQURER.net/Philstar.com). There are also regional Inquirers (Inquirer Visayas or Inquirer Mindanao) that are part of the print Philippine Daily Inquirer (so attributed to it), and not INQUIRER.net.
Further readings:
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