Punctuation

Commas

Use the Oxford comma — the comma that comes before the last item in a list — before the conjunction (and, or). 

E.g., His grandchildren are Vera, Chuck, and Dave. 

Not: His grandchildren are Vera, Chuck and Dave.

If two items in the list are a subgroup (e.g., they are both modified by the same adjective), make sure not to break them up with a comma by mistake.

E.g., She worked at Peruvian consulates and embassies, an airline, and a factory.

Not: She worked at Peruvian consulates, embassies, an airline, and a factory. 

Quotation marks

For more on when to use direct quotations and how to cite them, please refer to the Citations section.

Direct quotations

Use double quotation marks around direct quotations. Use single quotation marks for quotes within quotes.

E.g., The representative said he was “outraged that we’ve been called a ‘banana republic’ in this forum.”

Use indent quotations when exceeding 45 words (but use these very sparingly). Do not use quotation marks for indented quotations.

Regardless of whether they are part of the direct quotation, place periods and commas inside quotation marks. Unless they are part of the direct quotation, place colons, semicolons, and question marks outside quotation marks. 

E.g., The CEO said she would address the issue “at the appropriate time.” 

E.g., Did the CEO really say she would address the issue “at the appropriate time”?

E.g., She asked, “Did the CEO really say she would address the issue ‘at the appropriate time’?” before leaving the meeting in a huff.

Other uses of quotation marks

On the first reference, use double quotation marks to indicate you are referring to a term of art or an unfamiliar non-English word. Always define or explain the term immediately after using it for the first time if there is any chance the reader may not understand it.

E.g., The most prevalent among these is “love jihad,” an accusation based on a conspiracy theory.

E.g., The expression “ad astra per aspera" is a Latin phrase meaning “to the stars through difficulty.”

On the first reference, use double quotation marks around nicknames and place them either in the middle of the name, just before the surname, or in a phrase (“known as,” “referred to as,” “known locally as,” etc.) right after the legal name. On subsequent references, the nickname alone is permissible, unless a regional specialist offers other guidance. Do not refer to a nickname as an “alias” as it is law enforcement terminology.

E.g., Jimmy “Barbecue” Chérizier is a former police officer.

E.g., Jimmy Chérizier, known as “Barbecue,” is a former police officer.

Not: “Barbecue” is a former police officer.

Colons

If the words following a colon form a complete sentence, capitalize the first word. If they don’t, don’t.

E.g., I was sure of it: One day, Kevin would learn how to spell. 

E.g., He knew just three things: his name, his address, and the king’s phone number.

Semicolons

Divide a list with semicolons when any item in the list requires a comma. 

E.g., I scheduled one meeting with Tim and Su Mon; another with Pearl, Valentin, and Nichita; and a third with Jalale and Ameneh. 

Use semicolons to separate parts of a sentence only when both clauses are each a complete sentence on their own. Use them very sparingly as they add formality.

E.g., The BJP has strong ties with the RSS; Modi himself began his political career as a religious volunteer with the group.

Not: In addition to the BJP’s strong ties with the RSS; Modi himself began his political career as a religious volunteer with the group.

Apostrophes

Single proper names ending in S take only an apostrophe in possessive form.

E.g., Hamas’ leadership

Not: Hamas’s leadership

Ex: Belarus’ elite 

Not: Belarus’s elite

Single common nouns ending in S take an apostrophe and an S in possessive form.

E.g., The hostess’s invitation

E.g., The witness’s answer

Dashes 

ACLED uses the em dash (—) and not the shorter en dash (–) to break up a sentence. Use one space around each em dash. 

E.g., The government — which has responded to vigilantism with silence or even condonation — has done little to curb the violence.

To insert an em dash on a PC with a numeric keypad, hold down Alt and type 0151.

To insert an em dash on a Mac, hold down Option, Shift, and -. 

ACLED uses the en dash (–) and not a hyphen (-) for ranges.

E.g., The January–April period 

To insert an en dash on a PC with a numeric keypad, hold down Alt and type 0150.

To insert an en dash on a Mac, hold down Option and -. 

Hyphens 

Do not hyphenate compound modifiers that include -ly. 

E.g., The perfectly round dog sunned herself in the grass.

Not: The perfectly-round dog sunned herself in the grass.

When two hyphenated words have the same second half, put the hyphen on both first halves.

E.g., The product is eco- and child-friendly. 

Use hyphens to describe the order of superlatives.

E.g., The second-largest province

E.g., The second-most-used resource

Bullet points

Bullet points can make text, especially when viewed online, more readable. Always end each item with a period — never a semicolon — and capitalize the first letter. If a bullet point item is more than one sentence, style it normally as sentences.

E.g., Some popular fresh cheeses are:

●  Cottage cheese. (This one is less popular.)

●  Queso fresco.

●  Cream cheese. 

Italics

Do not italicize anything except parentheticals pointing to a visual. (Do not italicize non-English words, ships, military operations, or anything else.)

E.g., The Russian invasion led to a surge in the levels of violence directed at local government officials in Ukraine (see graph below).

Abbreviations and acronyms

In general, minimize the use of abbreviations and acronyms to the extent possible as they hinder readability. Ask: Is there another way to refer to an actor besides an acronym? E.g., could “The Rwanda Defence Force” be referred to after first mention as “Rwandan forces” instead of “the RDC”?

Write out a name and place the abbreviation or acronym in parentheses immediately afterward on first mention, unless there are no subsequent mentions, in which case you can omit the parenthetical. 

E.g., The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) met Thursday.

For abbreviations that are much more common than the full name spelled out (e.g., NATO), you can use the abbreviation on first mention without spelling it out first.

For the US, UN, EU, AU, UK, UAE, DRC, and CAR, spell out on first reference and omit the parenthetical. 

E.g., The United States threatened to withdraw funding. The president will fly to the US to address the matter.

Lowercase abbreviated names that are regularly pronounced as a word rather than as a series of letters as it aids readability, except when the capitalized version is used almost exclusively, e.g., NATO, UNICEF, or ACLED. 

E.g., The Morena party candidate won the election.

Not: The MORENA party candidate won the election.

Names 

Accents and non-Latin characters

In general, use accents in proper names in Latin-alphabet languages, including French, Spanish, and Portuguese.  

E.g., President Álvaro Uribe

Not: President Alvaro Uribe

One exception is in writing about the Sahel, where ACLED does not use accents. 

Names of people

Non-English names of prominent political or cultural figures or groups follow accepted English spellings, unless otherwise indicated by a specialist. If a name as written in Latin script has an accent, use it. 

Give the surname first for Japanese names, even if most news outlets do not: e.g., Abe Shinzo, not Shinzo Abe.

Hyphenate Korean names, with the second part of the given name in lowercase (Kim Jong-il: Family name = Kim, given name = Jong-il.)

Use the Pinyin system for transliterating Chinese words, except for people and places outside mainland China: e.g., Chiang Kai-shek not Jiang Jieshi.

Taiwanese names are usually hyphenated.

For Arabic names, see the transliteration guidelines.

Location names

Location names Names of countries adhere to the dataset (e.g., Ivory Coast, not Côte d’Ivoire) but other location names in ACLED’s written outputs may diverge from the dataset to ensure consistency and readability. In general, use accepted English spellings for well-known locations, e.g., Baalbek, Damascus, Kyiv, Moscow, Mumbai, Riyadh, Warsaw, unless otherwise indicated by country-specific entries in this style guide, or by regional specialists. 

Formal titles

Always introduce a public figure’s title on the first mention. Just the surname (or, in some contexts, a nickname or first name) is permissible on subsequent mentions. If the report is long and the public figure is less well-known, you can reuse the title at some point to jog the reader’s memory. 

Capitalize the title when it immediately precedes the name and is not immediately followed by a comma.

E.g., He was accompanied by President of Spain Pedro Sánchez.

E.g., He was accompanied by Pedro Sánchez, the president of Spain.

E.g., He was accompanied by the president of Spain, Pedro Sánchez.

Exception to the rule: ACLED titles are always capitalized in job advertisements and bios, even when not preceding the name.

E.g., Sandra Pellegrini is ACLED’s Senior Analyst, Latin America & the Caribbean, and Daniel Herrera Kelly is ACLED’s Associate Analysis Manager.

Do not capitalize informal titles (e.g., community leader, regional expert, or engineer).

Military titles should be spelled out (not abbreviated) on first reference and used only on first reference. 

E.g., Major General Odowaa Yusuf Rageh replaced the former head of Somalia’s armed forces. Rageh was army chief from 2020 to 2023.

To introduce the administration or government of a well-known political figure, it is acceptable to refer to their administration with a single name (i.e., their surname or a common nickname) before you mention the figure’s name. 

E.g., The Ruto government has apparently acquiesced to the protesters’ demands … President William Ruto spoke to journalists on Friday.

Numbers

Numerals or letters?

Write the numbers one to nine in words, and numbers including and above 10 in numerals. Ordinals (fifth, 11th) follow the same rule. An exception is when a number begins a sentence, in which case it must always be spelled out in words (which looks a bit odd, so try to avoid it). An exception to the exception is years, which may start a sentence without being spelled out. 

E.g., Forty-five battles were recorded in 10 countries across the region last week, with five in Yemen alone. 2022 could see further escalation.

Another exception: Hyphenate and spell out fractions less than one (e.g., two-thirds, seven-sixteenths). However, for mixed numbers larger than one, use numerals (e.g., 1 1/2, 3 5/8). Numbers between one and two are expressed in the plural (e.g., one and a half salaries, 1.3 times). Less-formal expressions like “roughly a third” are acceptable and not hyphenated. 

Thousands, millions, billions, and trillions

Use commas for numbers of more than four digits. 

E.g., 1,001 events 

Not: 1001 events

Not: 1.001 events

Use numerals to indicate how many millions, billions, or trillions, but always spell out million, billion, or trillion. Use decimals but don’t go beyond two decimal places. When expressing a range, include the word million, billion, or trillion in both numbers.

E.g., Between 11 million and 11.4 million people have been internally displaced.

Not: Between 11 and 11.4 million people have been internally displaced.

Ages

Always use numerals for ages. Use hyphens when ages are acting as an adjective before the noun or as a substitute for the noun, and after “mid.” 

E.g., Dad is 86 years old, but even in his mid-80s he still has the energy to take care of my 6-year-old son, who is actually more exhausting than my 3-year-old.

Dates and times

Use day-month-year format, and write them out in full. Do not use commas.

E.g., 21 October 2018 

Not: October 21 2018

Not: October 21, 2018,

Use the 24-hour clock for times of day.

E.g., 7 a.m.

E.g.,14:32 p.m.

Not: 7 AM

Not: 14h32

When referring to decades, use the full year, expressed in numerals and without apostrophes.

E.g., The 1990s

Not: The 1990’s

Not: The 90s 

Not: The nineties 

Use numerals for centuries.

E.g., The 19th century 

E.g., The mid-20th century

Hyphenate time periods. Do not use an en dash. It is acceptable to use only the second half of the year when the century is the same.

E.g., The groups were active from 1980-82, 1989-92, and 1999-2006. 

Measurements

Use the metric system — meters, kilometers, grams, kilograms, tonnes — not the imperial system — inches, miles, ounces, pounds, tons. Check the use of tons/tonnes and convert figures to metric if necessary. Spell out the measure on first reference and use an abbreviation on subsequent references. Include a space between a unit and its value. Use numerals for all numbers.

E.g., He weighed just 40 kilograms, but he was able to lift a 150 kg box.

For area, use the abbreviation and superscript (km2) on the first reference.

Currencies

Give the name of a currency in full the first time. Use the shortened version thereafter. When citing currency figures, there is no space between the currency sign and the number. In general, use US dollars unless specifically referring to a local currency. When using a local currency, please also provide a US dollar figure equivalent in brackets. To account for fluctuating conversion rates, add "at the time" when making a historical conversion.

E.g., She was paid 39,000 euros (roughly $45,500 at the time).

On second mention, use the name of the currency unless it is one of the following (with apologies for this Western-centric rule): 

• US dollars (use $ on second mention)

• British pounds (use £ on second mention)

• Euros (use € on second mention)

• Canadian dollars (use CA$ on second mention)

E.g., The country received 600 million Canadian dollars (417.55 million US dollars) in military support the first year and another CA$800 million (US$556.73) the next.

Perform conversions using XE.com. Find the shortened versions of currency names on XE’s symbols page.

Writing about ACLED and ACLED data

ACLED’s name

In general, the organization should be referred to by its acronym, ACLED, which stands for Armed Conflict Location & Event Data. The ampersand should be used when spelling out the full name.  ACLED can be described using the following language:

ACLED (Armed Conflict Location & Event Data) is an independent, impartial global monitor that collects, analyzes, and maps data on conflict and protest. ACLED provides detailed information to help identify, understand, and track patterns and trends in conflict and crisis situations around the world.

Referring to our CEO

Use "ACLED CEO Prof. Clionadh Raleigh" to refer to our CEO. Refer to the Formal titles entry to understand when and how to use commas.

Large percentages

Previously banned, "-fold" expressions (e.g., fivefold, sevenfold, ninefold) are acceptable in ACLED publications. These expressions always refer to an increase; there is no such thing as a "fourfold decrease," for instance.  Remember that fourfold is a 300% increase, fivefold is a 400% increase, and so on.

Data

Data is plural in ACLED analysis — the data are, not the data is. Our data should be described as ACLED data and not as ACLED’s data. The exception is External Affairs-led publications, in which data is singular.

Dataset is one word, and it is singular — the dataset is, not the dataset are. 

ACLED collects real-time data, but ACLED collects data in real time: Both are correct.

In most cases, refer to what’s in ACLED’s dataset using the present tense. As ACLED’s dataset is living, and it’s always possible that we will add, delete, or modify events that occurred during a previous period, when we write about that period we describe what’s in our data as it is now. 

E.g., ACLED records more than 600 events of violence against civilians in May 2024.

Not: ACLED recorded more than 600 events of violence against civilians in May 2024.

This principle translates to actor responsibility:

E.g., Boko Haram is responsible for over 60 reported fatalities from violence targeting civilians in June. 

Not: Boko Haram was responsible for over 60 reported fatalities from violence targeting civilians in June.

On the other hand, to describe the activity of producing the dataset, you can use the past tense.

E.g., In 2024, ACLED’s data collection teams recorded more than 4 million events.

Event types

When referring to ACLED event types in the context of ACLED methodology and following them with “event type(s),” capitalize the first word and put the term in quotation marks. When referring to event types otherwise, lowercase and put in quotation marks. For terms used within the text that happen to also be event types (e.g., airstrikes), do not capitalize or use quotation marks.

E.g., This figure includes the “Explosions/remote violence” event type.

E.g., ACLED counts the number of “airstrike events,” rather than individual airstrikes.

E.g., ACLED records five incidents of violence targeting civilians in the province in May.

Fatalities and casualties

ACLED’s conservative methodology for tallying fatalities guides our style for describing them. Some users, and particularly journalists, may focus on fatality counts in our analysis without fully understanding our methodology, so it is important to be cautious and consider that our numbers are often estimates, not absolute totals and, in many cases, represent a likely undercount.

Always include the word “reported” before fatalities, including when using synonyms and other constructions: reported deaths, reportedly killed, etc.; an exception is in timelines. When fatality numbers are high and/or contested, round to approximate numbers. In many cases you may wish to use “at least” before the number of fatalities. 

Note that the term fatalities differs from casualties, which includes both deaths and injuries. For more, see the FAQs: ACLED Fatality Methodology. To avoid confusion when discussing both deaths and injuries, where possible, use layman's terms instead. 

E.g., Eight people were reportedly killed in the attack, and 16 were injured.

Not: The attack led to eight fatalities and 16 other casualties.

Locations

Be sure to reference locations featured in supporting visuals within the body text.

See region-specific sections for entries on local administrative divisions. 

For disputed land or bodies of water, etc., include both names divided by a forward slash (e.g., Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands).  

Include the article when referring to a region. 

E.g., Activity was concentrated in the Amhara region.

Not: Activity was concentrated in Amhara region.

There is no hard-and-fast rule for how many administrative levels to include for a location within the body text of a report. Include as much information about a location as the average reader needs to situate it geographically and understand any relevant context. That information may not be additional administrative levels. Instead, it may be, for example, “a small village in the north of the country situated along important gold smuggling routes.” 

Methodological notes

Here, for easier reference, are some of our regularly used methodological fnotes.

Airstrike events: ACLED counts the number of "Airstrike events," rather than individual airstrikes. Per ACLED methodology, when several strikes hit the same location on the same day, they are coded as one event in the dataset. Visit the Codebook to learn more.

Extremist groups: ACLED uses this term to refer to a variety of actors, from “traditional” militias to militant street movements. Though they are also analyzed separately, this figure also accounts for white nationalist and neo-Nazi groups.

White nationalists: ACLED uses this term to refer to groups that openly describe themselves as white nationalist, white supremacist, or neo-Nazi.

This regional update covers ACLED data through 27 June. Data for 28-30 June will be available 9 July.

Photo captions

See the guidance on the Photo / Video sourcing & caption writing guide.

Titles and subtitles

Titles and section headings should:

• Be written in sentence case.

• Be short: Aim for 60 characters but don’t exceed 100.

• Include an active verb and aim for a full sentence in most cases. 

• Focus on what’s different, new, or trending — the title does not have to cover all the contents of the piece.

• Generally avoid the words continue, remain, and others that communicate stasis or a lack of change or development. A situation always develops and changes, however subtly — and if it hasn’t, we shouldn’t be writing about it — so try taking a more granular approach. 

• Ideally, do not include any of the words in the first sentence immediately following it.

E.g., The RSF sets its eyes on North Darfur in Sudan

Recurring outputs (like the regional updates or monthly special projects updates) should have a unique title related to the content, followed by the relevant time information. For example, the regional update covering 1-31 December 2025 is titled “Regional update: January 2026.” 

The title of the report should not include a date in the past. However, a subtitle can provide information on the time period covered by the data in the report. The weekly Ukraine Conflict Monitor update on the home page will feature the “Last updated” date, but the title in the archive will reflect the coverage period.

Dates in titles: All monthly recurring publications are referred to in the title with the month of publication. The same principle applies to fortnightly and weekly recurring publications.

Quotes in titles: Use double quotes, with single quotes for extremely rare cases of quotes inside quotations.

Time periods

When comparing a time period to a previous one, avoid constructions that require the reader to calculate a number of days or months in their head in order to understand the sentence — or that could lead the reader to think you're comparing the same dates in the previous year. Unfortunately, these constructions almost always sound a bit awkward when we're not using whole months or years, but some phrasing is a bit easier to process (though usually inevitably wordier). 

E.g., The nearly five-month period between 17 January and May 27 saw 52 such events, a 40% increase over the preceding period of equal length.

E.g., In the nearly five months between 1 January and 27 May 2025, ACLED records 52 such events, a 40% increase over the equal, immediately preceding timespan.

Not: January 1 through May 23 saw 52 such events, representing a 40% increase from the same period prior. 

 Timelines

Formatting timeline items

Timelines should follow the same format across all analysis outputs. Timeline items should be:

• At most 15 words, but aim for 10.

• Written in present tense.

• Written in active voice (subject-verb-object).

• Written as complete sentences — do not omit articles like “the” or other small words.

• Presented in the document as:

  [Date (Day + [month abbreviated to the first three letters].] | [Country] [Sentence]

E.g., 2 Nov. | Afghanistan The National Resistance Front shells a Taliban intelligence center in Baghlan province

If an event occurs over multiple days, use just the first day for the date and, within the item, make it clear that the event continued beyond the listed date.

E.g., 27 Nov. | Syria HTS-led rebels launch a major offensive and gain control of large parts of the north

E.g., 22 Dec. | Myanmar The military and Brotherhood Alliance begin a three-day round of peace talks

Writing timeline items

Timelines are the exception to a few ACLED style rules:

• You can refer to fatalities without using “reportedly,” for brevity. 

• You can use the abbreviation for an actor, as long as it is well-known to the readership and the full name appears elsewhere. 

Tips for keeping timeline items short:

• Be sure you’re talking about just one isolated event. 

• Instead of including an actor, figure, or agency’s full name, consider a descriptive phrase, e.g., “the ruling party” instead of the party name, “a lawmaker” instead of the full formal title, or “separatists” instead of the actor name. 

• Include just one administrative level and don’t repeat the country name.

• Instead of omitting important information for space, try being less specific. For example, “I picked up bananas, pears, flour, lentils, and eggs” could be shortened to “I bought groceries.”

• To determine which details are most important to include, consider that fatalities should always be mentioned. When in doubt, focus in on any fatalities or casualties from an event and work backward.

• Cut words describing the administrative level (e.g., municipality, state, region) unless it makes the item less clear. 

For more on timelines in Regional Overviews specifically, refer to the Regional Overview guide. 

Regional updates (Regional Overviews)

Regional Overviews are called regional updates (lower case) in our external publications. 

E.g., (For more, see the January 2026 Middle East regional update.)

Further readings: 

• Publications guide

• Glossary 

• Regional Overview 

• Visual Style Guide